Characterizing the Effect of Elevation on Climate Records in Denali National Park, Alaska

A Research Grant Report

by: Inga Kindstedt, PhD Student in Earth and Climate Sciences (University of Maine); Liam Kirkpatrick, Dartmouth College '22, PhD Student in Earth and Space Science (University of Washington) 

*This report has been lightly edited for clarity

Our field camp on the summit plateau of Begguya (13,000 ft). Photo credit: Emma Erwin.

The American Alpine Club supports scientific endeavors in mountains and crags around the world through our Research Grants. Landscapes and ecosystems are a vital part of climbing. We believe in the importance of funding projects that enrich our understanding of these places, contribute vital knowledge to the management of climbing environments, and improve the health and sustainability of the climbing community.

---

Definitions:

• Ice cores are cylinders of ice drilled from ice sheets or glaciers that are essentially frozen time capsules that scientists can use to reconstruct climate far into the past.
• Firn is snow at least one year old that has survived one melt season without becoming glacial ice.
• Isotopes are used to measure past climate properties

Ten miles south of North America's highest peak lies Begguya (Mt. Hunter), or "Denali's Child" in the Dena'ina language. To climbers, Begguya is known for its extremely committing and technical routes; only a handful of teams attempt it each season, compared to the hundreds on Denali. To our team of four researchers, Begguya is also known as the site where researchers recovered two surface-to-bedrock ice cores* in 2013.

The 2013 Begguya cores likely contain at least ten thousand years of the region's climate history, including records of snow accumulation, wildfire, and atmospheric pollution. Still, the interpretation of chemical signals in the ice can be challenging. This information is also supplemented by a firn* core recovered on the mountain's summit plateau in 2019.

Drilling and processing firn cores on the plateau. Photo credit: Emma Erwin.

In May of 2022, our team traveled to the Alaska Range with dual purposes: 1) to recover surface snow samples covering a span of elevations and 2) to recover another firn core from the Begguya summit plateau. We spent the first leg of our season on Denali's West Buttress, ascending to 11,200 ft. On the way, we collected surface snow samples for isotope* analysis. Our goal with these samples was to examine the relationship between elevation and the isotope signal recorded in the snowpack, thereby providing regional context for the isotope signal measured in the Begguya cores.

The climb also allowed us to acclimate before being transported via helicopter to the Begguya summit plateau (13,000 ft), where we spent the remaining two to three weeks of our season. Our objective on the plateau was to recover two 18m firn cores containing a climate record from the past several years, bringing the existing record to the present and allowing us to assess the impact of COVID-19 on atmospheric pollution recorded in the ice. 

Liam’s graduation day on the plateau. Photo credit: Emma Erwin.

During our time in the field, we successfully recovered both surface snow samples on the West Buttress and two firn cores on the plateau. We returned one core intact frozen to Dartmouth College for analysis and sampled the other in the field to transport back melted in vials. It was a remarkably successful field season—we even celebrated Liam's graduation from Dartmouth on the plateau! 

The Dartmouth Ice, Climate, and Environment Lab melted the intact core months after our return from the field. Some measurements (e.g., electrical conductivity, dust) were available in real-time as the ice melted. Both electrical conductivity and dust show distinct seasonal cycles, helping us develop a depth-age scale for the core. However, most of the meltwater was collected in vials, which have been sent to labs across the country to measure a wide range of chemical proxies.

We look forward to receiving back a variety of measurements, which will address topics ranging from pollution levels and sources to wildfire activity to plankton productivity in the North Pacific. 

Learn more about the impact of this research here. 

-Inga Kindstedt

---

Our fieldwork was conducted on the native lands of the Dena'ina peoples under a Denali National Park permit. It would not have been possible without the support of Denali National Park Rangers and Talkeetna Air Taxi. In addition to the financial support provided by the American Alpine Club, funding for this project was provided by the Sturgis Exploration Fund, the University of Maine Graduate Student Government, Maine Space Grants, the Dartmouth Outing Club, the John Sloan Dickey Center for International Understanding, and NOLS. 

An Alaskan Dream: A Story from the Mountaineering Fellowship Fund Grant

“The remoteness, the lack of people, and the complexities all work to create an atmosphere of real adventure...The 60-degree terrain had my heart racing and coated with the perfect snow; it made for a moment I could only dream of. I stopped to hammer in a picket 30 meters up and then again at the end of the rope, where I took a seat and belayed. Glory!”

Tanner Josey's dream of an Alaskan adventure turned into a reality in May of 2021. Josey attempted to climb Mount Foraker, the third highest peak in the United States.

Dive into the details and epic photos of his trip report and be transported into the Alaska Range. Face avalanche danger, navigate crevasses, and ascend steep snow slopes alongside Josey.

History of AAC Snowbird Hut

The AAC acquired the land use permit for the Snowbird Hut in 2006. After reviewing the state of the original ‘space dome’ structure originally constructed in (approx.) 1985 it was determined to be at the end of its useful life. Alaska Section members Harry Hunt, James Brady, Cindi Squire, Cory Hinds, and Charlie Sassara led the charge to fund and construct the building of a replacement hut. Chronological postings and pictures of the volunteer work parties that have been ongoing since July 2010.

Access to the Snowbird Hut does not afford easy access if you are unfamiliar with the approach. 

Please note that winter travel to and from the Snowbird Hut requires that you be self sufficient, and able to make your way in the backcountry (very little, if any, cell phone service). Good route finding and good weather are major considerations for this trip. If you have not been to the hut previously, please know that you could have a very difficult time finding it the first time. It is best to partner with someone who has knowledge of the area to assist in locating and accessing the hut. In the summer time, there are cairns along the way to assist with route finding.

GPS Coordinates: 61 51.506” North by 149 12.113” West

The best way to approach is from Archangel Road, starting at the Reed Lakes trailhead. Note, that in the winter, Archangel Road is closed and this adds to your approach time. Begin at the trailhead and hike up the valley to the old cabin on the main valley floor (approximately 1.25 miles). From here, head north up into the Glacier Creek valley, passing the Snowbird Mine. The pass at the head of Glacier Creek drops you on to the Snowbird Glacier.

Be advised that it is a difficult wilderness trek and the hut is hard to locate (although the new hut is more prominent on the ridge line). There have been many competent wilderness trekkers who have been benighted searching for the hut. So if you haven’t been there before it would be smart to not rely on the hut for your overnight survival. In the summer, the hike can take from 2 ½ hours to 4 hours and in winter, five to eight hours. Pollux Aviation is available for helicopter charters into the hut and can be contacted through their website, www.polluxaviation.net or by phone at (907) 746-0673

From Ocean to Peak: A Story from the Live Your Dream Grant

Sinclair is a dramatic, 6,800-ft granite peak rising above the Lynn Canal, across the water from Haines, AK. Reaching the top involves kayaking across the canal, landing on the beach by Yaldagalga Creek, bushwhacking to the back of the valley, and scrambling to the ridge where the technical climbing begins.

In this exhibit, Ceri Godinez shares the story of her ascent of Sinclair through the Live Your Dream Grant. The epic pictures will have you begging to climb it yourself.

The Live Your Dream Grant is powered by The North Face.

The Prescription - December 2021

The north face of Pioneer Peak, showing the route attempted in the incident below. X marks approximate site of the anchor where the climbers were impacted by avalanches. Photo by Cecil Sanders

The Prescription - December 2021

Alaska, Chugach Mountains, Pioneer Peak

Two Avalanches – Rope Cut, Anchor Unclipped

We know that many people don’t read every single report in Accidents—particularly ones that are far from home and more than three pages long. But we want to call your attention to the story highlighted here, both for the lessons it imparts and for the drama of the events—fortunately they ended without a fatality or very serious injuries. A condensed outline follows. We highly recommend reading the full report, starting on page 20 of this year’s book or at this page on our publications website.

On April 15, Fallon Connolly, 26, and Simon Frez-Albrecht, age 28 (both experienced climbers), started up the nearly 6,000-foot north face of Pioneer Peak, northeast of Anchorage, at 5:45 a.m. It had been 37°F at the car. Near the second ice band on the long snow and ice route, about 4,000 feet above the start, Fallon observed signs of what appeared to be fairly recent avalanches on the gully walls. Simon was about 50 feet ahead of Fallon and had nearly reached a position to anchor for the next pitch when he noticed a very small wet loose avalanche come tumbling over the ice above. He yelled down to warn Fallon. Simon was standing to one side of the gully, and it didn’t hit him, but it all washed directly over Fallon; she planted both tools firmly and put her head down to let the snow pass. They estimated the flow lasted 60 seconds.

After the flow stopped, Fallon continued up to where Simon was waiting and they moved together perhaps 50 feet up and to the opposite side of the gully, where there were some obvious cracks in the rock. Here they built an anchor and, given what they had observed, prepared to descend from this point. Simon bounce-tested their bail anchor and then set up their brand-new 7.8mm ropes (pink and green) and threaded them through his device for a rappel. Fallon also pre-rigged her device on the rappel ropes. A number 2 Camalot they had placed temporarily was clipped to the ropes as backup, with a non-locker on a 60cm sling. Fallon remained clipped to the cord masterpoint in the anchor with a locking carabiner as Simon began to rappel. When Simon was about halfway down, Fallon yelled to warn him about another avalanche coming over the ice pitch above.

What followed was an extraordinary “series of unfortunate events”:

Brand-new rope cut during this incident.

• Fallon was knocked off her feet by the slide and left hanging from her tether clipped to the anchor. Her gloves and glasses disappeared.

• Their pink rappel rope broke (likely cut against a sharp edge of rock), but the knot joining the ropes jammed in Fallon’s pre-rigged rappel device, keeping the other rope attached to her and thus to the anchor.

• Simon was pummeled by avalanche debris for one to three minutes. Only a tangle in the green rope kept him from being pulled to the end of the rope by the debris.

• As the slide ended, Fallon stood up at the anchor. Before she could reinforce her tether or anchor the green rope, a second avalanche rumbled over the ice above. This time, Fallon was pulled from the anchor and tumbled down the slope.

Damage to Fallon’s harness when she was hit by avalanches at the rappel stance on Pioneer Peak. The harness likely would have sustained many kilonewtons of force to be damaged this way, yet both it and the anchor held.

• Simon heard and saw the second slide coming and was able to shelter behind a rock outcrop, yet the debris plucked him from this stance and he fell another 100 feet down the snow gully. Fallon slid and tumbled a total of 300 to 400 feet.

Very fortunately, neither climber was buried, swept all the way down the mountain, or seriously injured, and they were able to self-rescue to the road.

In his analysis of the incident, Simon outlined numerous important but subtle clues they missed when they decided to climb this route on a relatively warm day. “We felt we had pieced together enough information to make an informed decision,” he wrote. “I suspected the shed cycle had already happened in the previous warm, sunny days, so there wouldn’t be a significant amount of loose/available snow left on the mountain to slide onto us. I didn’t consider that the freezing at night had been enough to keep the snow locked in place, poised above us.

“Probably the single most obvious clue we missed,” he continued, “was that it had stayed cloudy the night before our climb, preventing the radiant cooling that had dropped night time temps in the previous days. This kept the snowpack wet and near the tipping point when the weak sun struck the face for a couple of hours through the clouds.”

Ten days after the accident, in colder conditions, Simon climbed back to their anchor to try to determine what had happened. He found a sharp edge where the pink rope, oscillating under load during the slide, likely had cut. However, most of the anchor was intact. Fallon’s tether and locking carabiner, which had fallen with her during the second avalanche, also were undamaged. “Why had she come unclipped from the anchor?” Simon wondered. “The only conclusion we can draw is that the screw-gate locker with which Fallon clipped her tether to the master point must have jiggled to the unlocked position during the first avalanche. Then, when she unweighted the tether, the locker must have shifted into a position where it could unclip itself when the second avalanche pushed her back onto her tether.”

A mock setup of pre-rigged rappel devices, where two climbers have set up both of their rappel devices before the first starts down. (Anchor tethers and backups are omitted for clarity.) Click the photo to find a good article exploring the pros and cons of pre-rigging rappels. Photo courtesy of AlpineSavvy.com

Simon might have slid all the way down the mountain during the first avalanche, when the pink rope broke, except for one extra step the two took while preparing to rappel. “Over the last year or two, I have been making a conscious effort to increase my safety margin while climbing,” Simon wrote. “This includes tying knots in the ends of ropes during rappels, using a rappel backup, and using autolocking carabiners and assisted braking belay devices more often. I had recently been toying with pre-rigging rappel devices as well, but was not doing this consistently. For whatever reason, this was one of those times we pre-rigged Fallon’s belay device on the rope, and by snagging the knot joining the ropes after our pink rope cut, it happened to keep me alive.”

Again, we encourage you to read the full report in ANAC 2021 or find it here. We’re grateful to climbers like Simon and Fallon who choose to share such stories, which can be painful or even embarrassing to recount. They teach us that the little things sometimes can make all the difference.

---

VIA FERRATA LANYARDS RECALLED

In mid-November, Petzl announced a recall of Scorpio Eashook via ferrata lanyards, sold either individually or as part of a via ferrata kit (lanyard, harness, helmet), because of possible malfunctions in the lanyard’s carabiners. The recall affects lanyards with certain serial numbers and manufactured since January 1, 2021; customers who purchased these lanyards are urged to stop using them immediately. See Petzl’s website for details and compensation information.

---

ROCKFALL AND RESCUE IN ZION NATIONAL PARK

Aaron, 42, and Ian, 16 are a father-son team of adventurous climbers from Tucson, Arizona. In June 2021, with lots of exploratory climbing experience under their belts, they headed to Zion National Park to attempt a relatively obscure route on a cliff informally known as Mt. Greer. On the 12th pitch, gunning for the top of the formation, Aaron was leading a gully and chimney system when the rock under his feet crumbled, sending sandstone blocks tumbling down the gully toward his son. Listen to the new Sharp End podcast to hear all about how they got into this predicament—and how they got out.

---

The monthly Prescription newsletter is supported by adidas Outdoor and the members of the American Alpine Club. Questions? Suggestions? Write to us at accidents@americanalpineclub.org.

The Prescription - January 2021

National Park Service rangers rescuing the fallen climber from Mt. Shuksan. NPS Photo

The Prescription - January 2021

ANCHOR FAILURES IN THE MOUNTAINS

North Cascades National Park, Mt. Shuksan, Sulphide Glacier Route

On July 19, 2020, a party of three climbers was descending Mt. Shuksan after summiting via the Sulphide Glacier route. The party was rappelling the standard descent route on Shuksan’s summit pyramid. They reached a flat ledge and found an existing anchor consisting of a single loop of red webbing around a rock horn. After pulling the rope from the previous rappel, one of the climbers, a 28-year-old female, began to rig the second-to-last rappel of their descent. She threaded the rope through the anchor, rigged her rappel device, and began to weight the anchor. At this time, the rock horn failed, and the climber fell about 100 feet. The other climbers were not attached to the anchor when the failure occurred. The climber came to rest in 3rd- and 4th-class terrain, suffering an unspecified lower leg injury.

The party activated an inReach device to request a rescue, and the remaining two climbers were able to downclimb to the fallen climber’s position and provide basic medical care. At 5:30 p.m., National Park Service rangers arrived on scene via helicopter, and a short-haul operation was performed to extract the injured climber. The rest of the party was able to safely exit the mountain on their own.

ANALYSIS

In an interview with the party, the climber stated they were in a hurry due to the lateness of the day and they were tired from attempting a car-to-car climb of this long route (6,400 feet of elevation gain). The climber stated that at this rappel station they did not assess the integrity of the anchor, as they had been doing previously. This decision was influenced by time, fatigue, and the assumption the anchor would be strong, like the other anchors they had just used for rappelling.

When rappelling, it is imperative to assess the integrity of every anchor before weighting it. Inspect the entire anchor material, especially the less visible back side of the anchor, to be sure it is not chewed, weathered, or otherwise damaged. It is not uncommon to encounter structurally unsound rock in the North Cascades; if possible, test all anchors with a belay or backup before rappelling, and back up the anchor until the last person in the party descends.

It is possible the horn that failed was not one of the standard descent anchors on Shuksan’s summit pyramid. During multi-rappel descents, it is not uncommon to rappel past the standard anchor or to spot an anchor from above and head toward it, thereby missing the optimum anchor. When the descent route is the same as your climbing route, try to note and remember the position of the standard rappel anchors as you climb. (Source: North Cascades National Park Mountaineering Rangers.)

A very similar rappelling accident on Mt. Shuksan’s summit period was reported in the 1992 edition of ANAC.

RAPPEL ANCHOR FAILURES: A COMMON THEME IN ANAC 2020

The 2020 edition of Accidents in North American Climbing reported an unusually high number of rappel anchor failures: six in all! Half of these resulted in fatalities.

Just after this climber began a short rappel on Nishelheim’s northwest ridge, the sling came undone and she fell, fortunately without serious injury.

Two of the six rappel anchor failures in ANAC 2020 involved inadequate anchors built by the climbers; the pieces pulled out of the rock when weighted. In a third case, the climbers built their own anchor and then the rock pillar in which their cams were placed shifted, causing the cams to pull out. Three of the incidents were very similar to the one reported above. Climbers found an in situ cord or sling, which broke or came untied when a rappeller weighted it:

• Mendenhall Towers, Alaska: A worn cord connecting two fixed pieces broke under load.

• Evolution Traverse, California: A weathered cordelette snapped, even though one climber in the party had already used it.

• Niselheim, British Columbia: An in situ sling wrapped around a rock horn came loose when a rappeller failed to inspect it before weighting the ropes—the “knot” joining the two ends of the sling was completely inadequate.

Online forums are filled with photos and discussions of the best way to rig rappels from bolted anchors. But failures of such anchors are extremely rare. The types of incidents described here—especially the failure of rappel anchors built with rock horns, boulders, or weathered slings on mountain routes—are far more common. The lesson is crystal clear: No matter how tired you are, how dark it is, or how quickly the weather is deteriorating, every rappel anchor found in place while descending must be carefully inspected and/or tested before it can be trusted.

THE SHARP END: TURNING THE TABLES

After five years of hosting the Sharp End Podcast, it’s Ashley Saupe’s turn to be interviewed. Listen as Steve Smith at Experiential Consulting turns the tables on the podcast creator and interviews her about some incidents she's had in the backcountry, how she's managed them, and why she is inspired to continue producing this podcast for her listeners.

MEET THE RESCUERS

Neil Van Dyke, Search and Rescue Coordinator, Vermont Department of Public Safety, and member of Stowe Mountain Rescue

Years volunteering with your team: 40

Home areas: Smugglers Notch and Lower West Bolton. But I spend more time skiing (backcountry, alpine, or Nordic), hiking, and canoeing than I do recreational climbing.

How did you first become interested in search and rescue?

It was an opportunity to combine my interests in first aid and emergency response (I was a volunteer firefighter and EMT) and recreating in the outdoors. It was a natural fit. There were no local SAR teams at that time, so I helped start one!

Personal safety tip?

It’s hard to pick just one, but for me the most important is having really good situational awareness, knowing your limits, and understanding when to turn around and come back another day. Most people get in trouble because they push limits, which can be either a conscious decision or one made unwittingly due to a lack of situational awareness.

How about your scariest “close call”?

September 11, 1993. Our team was responding to Hidden Gulley in Smugglers Notch to assist a father and son who had gotten cliffed out. I climbed up to a ledge about 100 feet below them and was belaying my partner up to my position. The rock was really nasty and rotten, but I put a sling around a large bulge that I thought would be okay as an anchor. Unfortunately, that whole piece separated from the face and took me with it. I fell about 60 feet and was sure it was “all over,” but survived with a bunch of broken bones and a punctured lung. I still receive the occasionally ribbing from colleagues for trying to direct my own rescue.

What are your biggest concerns for this winter season?

Like many areas of the country, we are concerned in Vermont about what looks to be a large influx of new backcountry skiers. While we saw this to some degree with people flocking to the outdoors last summer during COVID, the consequences of something going wrong in the winter are clearly much higher. We shouldn’t be afraid to welcome new users to the sport, but there are definitely concerns that some will not be properly equipped and prepared. We’ve had some good discussions among the local ski community about watching out for each other and doing what we can to gently mentor newcomers to the backcountry when we encounter them.

What would you say to people interested in learning more about search and rescue?

Reach out to your closest SAR team to find out more about how they operate and what they are looking for in members. You can also check with the government agency that has jurisdiction for SAR in your area. For most teams, having really solid all-around outdoor skills is critical—we always tell prospective members that we can teach the technical rescue skills needed, but we can’t teach them how to be comfortable and effective while working long hours outdoors in adverse conditions.

---

Share Your Story: The deadline for the 2021 edition of Accidents in North American Climbing is not far off. If you were involved in a climbing accident or rescue in 2020, consider sharing the lessons with other climbers. Let’s work together to reduce the number of accidents. Reach us at accidents@americanalpineclub.org.

The monthly Accidents Bulletin is supported by adidas Outdoor and the members of the American Alpine Club.

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge Under Threat

The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge is facing a tremendous threat. Its solitude and silence are one step closer to being replaced with noisy drilling equipment and heavy machinery.  Over the course of our 115-year history, the American Alpine Club has been committed to protecting our country’s most treasured landscapes, including the Arctic. With Congress’ budget vote last week, the future of this crown jewel is at risk.

Located in northern Alaska, the Arctic Refuge offers dramatic mountain summits, inspiration and endless adventure. As AAC Managing Director Keegan Young says, “These mountain ranges and untouched landscapes represent the wild places in our heart and mind. I’ve climbed all over the world but return to these peaks because they ignite my soul. It's not just the rugged terrain, it's the solitude and magnificent beauty.”

Last week, the United States Senate passed a budget resolution that charges the Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee with reducing the federal deficit through revenues created by oil and gas leasing in the Arctic Refuge. Since the House of Representatives already passed a similar budget provision early this year, both the House and Senate will work to reconcile their budget versions before final passage and delivery to the president.

The AAC has a long legacy of scientific exploration and adventure in the Arctic—pioneering cutting-edge new routes and supporting research expeditions that have contributed valuable information to our understanding of mountain, Antarctic and Arctic ecosystems. For example, AAC Board Member Kit DesLauriers completed the first known ascent of Mount Isto in the ANWR and has been working to merge environmental science with adventure. Check out her story here.

Help protect our last great frontier: As climbers, we have a duty to protect the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge for future generations. We still have time to urge Congress to protect the Arctic Refuge and stop irresponsible energy development there.

Check out how your Senators voted. Call and tell them that you think the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge is too precious to be developed and tell them how you feel about their vote: (202) 224-3121.

Banner photo by Paxson Woelber.